Interleukin-1 refers to two proteins (IL-1α and IL-1β) which play a key role early in the inflammatory response (for a review, see Dinarello, Blood, 87: 2095-2147 (1996) and references therein). both proteins are made as intracellular precursor proteins which are cleaved upon secretion to yield mature carboxy-terminal 17 kDa fragments which are biologically active. In the case of IL-1β, this cleavage involves an intracellular cysteine protease, known as ICE, which is required to release the active fragment from the inactive precursor. The precursor of IL-1α is active.
These two proteins act by binding to cell surface receptors found on almost all cell types and triggering a range of responses either alone or in concert with other secreted factors. These range from effects on proliferation (e.g. fibroblasts, T cells) apoptosis (e.g. A375 melanoma cells), cytokine induction (e.g. of TNF, IL-1, IL-8), receptor activation (e.g. E-selectin), eicosanoid production (e.g. PGE2) and the secretion of degradative enzymes (e.g. collagenase). To achieve these effects, IL-1 activates transcription factors such as NF-KB and AP-1. Several of the activities of IL-1 action on target cells are believed to be mediated through activation of kinase cascades that have also been associated with cellular stresses, such as the stress activated MAP kinase JNK/SAPK and p38.
A third member of the IL-1 family was subsequently discovered which acts as a natural antagonist of IL-1α and IL-1β by binding to the IL-1 receptor but not transducing an intracellular signal or a biological response. The protein is called IL-1Ra (for IL-1 receptor antagonist) or IRAP (for IL-1 receptor antagonist protein). At least three alternatively spliced forms of IL-1Ra exist: one encodes a secreted protein, also known as secretory IL-1Ra (“sIL-1Ra”) (described in Eisenberg et al., Nature, 343: 341-346 (1990)), and the other two encode intracellular proteins. IL-1α, IL-1β and IL-1Ra exhibit approximately 25-30% sequence identity with each other and share a similar three dimensional structure consisting of twelve β-strands folded into a β-barrel, with an internal thrice repeated structural motif.
There are three known IL-1 receptor subunits. The active receptor complex consists of the type I receptor and IL-1 accessory protein (IL-1RAcP). The type I receptor is responsible for binding of the IL-1α, IL-1β and IL-1Ra ligands, and is able to do so in the absence of the IL-1RAcP. However, signal transduction requires the interaction of IL-1α or IL-11β with the IL-1RAcP. IL-1Ra does not interact with the IL-1RAcP and hence cannot induce signal transduction. A third receptor subunit, the type II receptor, binds IL-1α and IL-11β but cannot transduce signal due its lack of an intracellular domain. Instead, the type II receptor either acts as a decoy in its membrane bound form or as an IL-1 antagonist in a processed, secreted form, and hence inhibits IL-1 activity. The type II receptor weakly binds to IL-1Ra.
Many studies using IL-1Ra, soluble IL-1R derived from the extracellular domain of the type I IL-1 receptor, antibodies to IL-1α or IL-1β, and transgenic knockout mice for these genes have shown that IL-1 plays a role in a number of pathophysiologies (for a review, see Dinarello, Blood, 87: 2095-2147 (1996)). For example, IL-1Ra has been shown to be effective in animal models of septic shock, rheumatoid arthritis, graft-versus-host disease (GVHD), stroke, cardiac ischemia, psoriasis, inflammatory bowel disease, and asthma. In addition, IL-1Ra has demonstrated efficacy in clinical trials for rheumatoid arthritis and GVHD, and is also in clinical trials for inflammatory bowel disease, asthma and psoriasis.
More recently, interleukin-18 (IL-18) was placed in the IL-1 family (for a review, see Dinarello et al, J. Leukocyte Biol., 63: 658-664 (1998)). IL-18 shares the β-pleated, barrel-like form of IL-1α and IL-1β. In addition, IL-18 is the natural ligand for the IL-1 receptor family member formerly known as IL-1R-related protein (IL-1Rrp) (now known as the IL-18 receptor (IL-18R)). IL-18 has been shown to initiate the inflammatory cytokine cascade in a mixed population of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) by triggering the constitutive IL-18 receptors on lymphocytes and NK cells, inducing TNF production in the activated cells. TNF, in turn, stimulates IL-1 and IL-8 production in CD14+ cells. Because of its ability to induce TNF, IL-1, and both C-C and C-X-C chemokines, and because IL-18 induces Fas ligand as well as nuclear translocation of nuclear factor κB (NF-κB), IL-18 ranks with other pro-inflammatory cytokines as a likely contributor to systemic and local inflammation.